From the early years of the Classical Age to now, philosophy has played a key role in our lives, whether intellectually or through mundane schoolwork. How we think and are taught to think has been previously explored and thought upon by generations of philosophers whose existence has preceded many important events of our time. Exposing women in philosophy is especially important to history because it explores female representation in male-dominated fields; additionally, women in philosophy show a different but rather important perspective of classical history because of the new thoughts and ideas they introduce. In this paper, women’s role in philosophy will be thoroughly examined and discussed by analyzing ancient literature while also challenging certain stereotypes placed upon them during antiquity.
One name that comes to mind when thinking about ancient female writers—Sappho. As a poet, lyricist, and teacher, Sappho might be one of the most well-studied and researched women of her time. But, as always, new opinions and analyses appear, making us question what we already know about the elusive writer. Could we add “philosopher” to her already impressive resume?
Sappho’s identity bleeds into her work. It is important to note that there was no way to denote “homosexuality” in Ancient Greece. The prevalent idea is that the standard for sexuality in Ancient Greece was based and judged on physical appearance, rather than gender. In a time where homosexuality was common in Ancient Greece, it is interesting to see where certain double standards arise upon examining classical history a little bit more closely, with a different perspective in mind. Additionally, women were considered to be “unproblematic” or “acceptable” sexual partners, while the freedmen of “higher society” were considered unacceptable for further relations. This double standard extends well into what defined sexual relations in ancient Greece – namely, that there were traditionally two roles for the respective partners: passive (inactive) and active (counteractive). Slaves, women, and underage male citizens were mainly reserved for the “passive” aspect of the relationship, while older experienced male citizens coveted the “active” role.[1]
However, these roles of dominant and submissive partners did not entirely remove marriage from the equation. Yet it was another way for men to assert their control in the procreation. In the book “Popular Perceptions of Elite Homosexuality in Classical Athens”, T. K. Hubbard notes that “marrying for love was not absent from society completely, however, [marriage] was presented as a duty of women, in which they were to bear children.”[2] This dissembling pretense which scrutinized women’s sexuality makes Sappho’s work even more important; through empathy for the author, readers are inclined to find a deeper meaning within her words that have seemingly lasted many generations.
Yet, she is one of very few female poets living in the Archaic period portrayed in artwork. According to Dimitrios Yatromanolakis’s book “Visualizing Poetry: An Early Representation of Sappho”, “mention of two cases that reflect different perceptions of Sappho’s image will suffice here: first, the nineteenth-century painting Apotheosis of Homer by J. A. D. Ingres (1827), where Sappho is the only woman present at a ceremony in honor of Homer, among many poets and artists such as Anacreon, Apelles, Raphael, Shakespeare, and Racine; and second, a 1983 painting by A. Fassianos, where Sappho has taken off her usual ancient chiton and himation to pose on a bed half-naked.”[3]
However, one title that history often fails to present to Sappho is that of “philosopher”. Although it may be unusual to label her in this way, throughout history, scholars have compared her to other classical philosophers such as Lucretius. In her book, “Roman Receptions of Sappho”, Thea S. Thorsen contrasts the work of Lucretius against Sappho. Nevertheless, as far as this paper is concerned, more of Sappho’s philosophical stance, throughout her poetry, will be discussed. Her representation in philosophical history is that of a strong writer and woman involved in self-expression of new and unheard-of ideals. The philosophical aspect of Sappho’s writing is often overshadowed by many factors, namely of which connect to the theme of this paper – the lack and unconventional nature of female representation.
Though Sappho is most famous for her poetry on love, it is worth reading between the lines to examine her views on philosophy or, in her case, wisdom more specifically. Scholars such as Chelsey Harris now recognize Sappho as an “erosopher” (“lover of wisdom”). While Sappho is certainly not a traditional philosopher in the same vein as the greats of her time, there are ways we can find philosophy within her verse, specifically within Fragment 1, the Ode to Aphrodite. On the surface, Sappho declares her love and passion for the Greek goddess of love, but an underlying analysis exists as well. Harris notes that, “Sappho’s memories and desires are rooted in the ways she has become wise about love and of her beloved – she has experienced it but remains unsated. She wants more, more, more; now, now, now. In her song, she toggles between what once was and what she presently wants for the future. There is more to love and more to know.”[4] This passion for knowledge and longing elevates Sappho from a writer to a philosopher, reaching for wisdom and understanding.
Furthermore, scholars often find similar themes of moral ambiguity and questioning in other fragments too. Diane J. Rayor and André Lardinois’s acclaimed translation of Sappho’s poems, Sappho: A New Translation of the Complete Works, provides classical fields with updated translations of Sappho’s poems. These themes can be found in Fragment 58, as translated by Rayor and Lardinois[5]:
My spirit has grown heavy; knees buckle
that once could dance light as fawns.
I often groan, but what can I do?
Impossible for humans not to age…
Yet I love the finer things… this and passion
for the light of life has granted me brilliance and beauty.
These truly deep and transformative lines written by Sappho reveal an ebb and flow inside the author’s mind. The supposedly well-understood identity of Sappho is now complicated, revealing a profound understanding of the human condition. Moreover, this seemingly new and undiscovered philosophical perspective of Sappho’s work reveals to us a deeper theme: that women writers especially in classical periods of Ancient Greece have much to say and goes beyond sexuality and romance.
This specific fragment demonstrates the philosophical breadth of Sappho’s work. Ellen Greene offers an interpretation of Sappho’s Fragment, saying that “her poetry is clearly philosophical in the broad colloquial sense of reflecting on what has value in human life and exploring the nature of human existence more generally. But, arguably, her poetry is also philosophical in a narrower, more technical sense. While Sappho’s poetry does not contain the kind of organized system of ideas one finds in Plato and Aristotle, her poetry treats some of the central metaphysical themes explored by such pre-Socratic thinkers as Thales, Heraclitus, and Anaximander – who are themselves explicitly recognized to be philosophers by Plato and Aristotle. A major theme in the work of these pre-Socratic philosophers was the attempt to understand the nature of reality, and how the human experience of permanence and change is related to that reality. This theme of permanence and change was no doubt in the intellectual atmosphere of Sappho’s culture. Thales of Miletus was probably her contemporary, so it is not altogether surprising that Sappho explores ideas about permanence and change in several of her poems.”[6] This comparison between the work of philosophers and Sappho’s verse makes an interesting point: namely, that there may be an unlikely bond between poetry and philosophy by their very nature. Arguably, poets, in their own right, must look through life and existential meaning, seemingly in a similarly philosophical manner as Sappho. Poetry and philosophy, over time, have often intertwined and, indeed, neither might exist without the other. Consideration of this philosophical side of Sappho’s work begs the following questions: Were there more examples in her lost verse that contained further evidence of her philosophical inquiries? Was it due to her gender that this conception of her as a possible philosopher in the making was lost?
Moreover, throughout the rest of Sappho’s extant work, viewers are able to learn much more from her in a profoundly expressive sense about abstract concepts like wealth and time. Diane J. Rayor translates Fragment 148 as so: “Wealth without virtue makes a dangerous neighbor, while their blend holds the pinnacle of happiness.”[7] This particular fragment strongly resembles pre-Socratic thinking; generally, scholars perceive the interests of these schools of philosophy to be towards a wide variety of abstract and concrete concepts. In this way, philosophers belonging to the Pre-Socratic legacy can be seen as having discussed a wide range of thought. Therefore, Sappho’s more profound reflection of wealth and materialism reaches a new dimension and depth for her writing; the new philosophical side of her writing proves to scholars that women writers especially in antiquity had the resources to explore and articulate personal truths. Similarly, in her Tithonus poem, Sappho evinces a difference between the “mythic past” and the present, whilst maintaining a foothold in both. Eva Stehle comments that “Sappho as speaker presents herself as poised between two eras when she is close to divinity”[8]. The philosopher-poet thereby demonstrates a greater understanding of the world and her place in it.
In the context of classical antiquity, there were very few men who truly believed in the education of females. Those who did certainly set an important precedent within the deep-rooted patriarchal standards of Ancient Greece and Rome. However uncommon this may have been, a certain justice and equality of sexes was established primarily through the education of men and women. Thanks to this belief that some important male scholars held, regardless of what their misogynistic colleagues may have thought, led many women to great success in philosophy. Furthermore, the representation of female philosophers is especially crucial as present history is exposed to their new and valuable contributions to philosophy.
When closely looking at philosophical history with a specific perspective covering women, it is nearly impossible to forget those wronged by history. It is important to remember that due to their gender, certain philosophers’ stories have been lost and purposefully left behind. Possibly untrue or unknown assumptions about these female philosophers have permanently impacted women’s overall influence on philosophy in classical antiquity. Prejudice and particular discrimination against female philosophers has caused a significant rift within philosophical history. Certain biases lead some to believe that philosophy, as a whole, is incredibly unforgiving and wildly sexist at times.
Even ancient philosophical schools have included women amongst their teachers. A point of interest arises when analyzing this perspective of philosophical history combined with Leontion, an Epicurean philosopher from Ancient Greece. Considered to be the “lost philosopher” of her time, little is known about Leontion’s life. Work or biography of Leontion currently is still not complete by any means. Unfortunately, this fact may be attributed to sources claiming Leontion was a courtesan or hetaera. The most important source emphasizing this information is Diogenes Laertius’s Book of Philosophers, which describes her as “Leontion, the courtesan.”[9]
This prejudice against, or even disregard for, courtesans or prostitutes within philosophy in Ancient Greece reflects a very exclusive field of work that makes it even harder for women philosophers to be respected in the community. In making assumptions about the hetaera’s life or values, scholars and respected philosophers ignore Leontion. However, there is more to her story than what they think – though her presence lives on only in male philosophers’ work and not her own, Leontion is still praised for her work. Here is a forgotten scholar, whom we can learn more about if we read sources like Diogenes Laertius or Epicurus.
Modern society’s overall perception of Leontion unfortunately has much to do with her supposed occupation as a courtesan. Leontion’s philosophical work has primarily influenced the Epicurean school of thought; however, in separating the woman from the work, scholars in Ancient Greece have further silenced and erased female philosophers from history. Similarly, modern researchers are forced to rely on ancient prejudice. Essentially, the life led by Leontion defines her legacy as opposed to her work. Moreover, it draws attention to women’s development and treatment during ancient times, especially in Greece. By not mentioning female courtesans and other “undesirables”, philosophers of the ancient world further discriminated against women, preventing them from reaching their full potential.
On the other hand, the hetaera of Ancient Greece was given greater independence, of a kind denied to other women within their community. Within Ancient Greece, surprisingly, prostitution was not an illicit business. The work of prostitutes, either as hetaerae or pornai, was essentially equated or relatively equivalent to those of a deeper connection, thus making it an almost “holistic” field for women to work. In recent scholarly work, substantial evidence points to that hetaerae were considered “professional lovers” compared to pornai. Moreover, hetaerae were given entirely different privileges and social standing, remarkably similar to those of higher-class women. An Encyclopedia from Ancient Times to the Present remarks that “hetaerae had the distinction of being the few women invited to the famous Greek symposia. During these symposia, hetaerae had the opportunity to cultivate their minds by listening to conversations of politicians, philosophers, and other assorted male members of society… Another factor that helps prove the elevated status of hetaerae is their mention in written texts and other representational forms performed in the public sphere with a clear intellectual value.”[10] Laura K. McClure reiterates this argument in Courtesans at the Table, noting that “this skilled repartee probably required of the most elite courtesans a basic literary education; indeed, some were even said to have written literary treatises of their own. Another function of their conversation was to entertain and draw men’s minds away from the everyday concerns of business and political life.”[11] This elevated social status that hetaerae were given explains much of Leontion’s presence in philosophy. It is also suggested that “ancient upper-class women became philosophers not only because of their association with a male mentor or family member who was a philosopher, but also under the influence of their female mentors or relatives.”[12] Not only were these women privileged to receive an education, but they might have built a community as a consequence. From attending these Greek symposia, hetaerae were allowed to listen to essential speakers, developing and expanding their minds in the process. These experiences and exceptions contribute much to female representation in philosophy.
Luckily, Leontion’s work and influence on Epicurean philosophy have been restored partially to modern civilization. Her identity and importance to philosophy is still preserved, albeit partially, in extant literature; in Diogenes Laertius’s The Lives of the Philosophers, there is a section dedicated to the life of Epicurus. Within correspondence between the great philosopher and Leontion, Epicurus writes, “O lord Paean, my dear Leontion, what transports of joy did I feel when I read your charming letter.”[13] This correspondence between Epicurus and Leontion indicates particular importance and influence on the Epicurean school of thought. Furthermore, readers are given a slight idea of the high regard courtesans, or even women more generally, held in the Epicurean school of philosophy.
On that note, it is also crucial to introduce Leontion’s own philosophy and how her background impacted her work. As previously mentioned, women were given few opportunities outside their status quo, let alone rights. If you were not a wealthy, male, Greek-born landowner, there was no or minimal opportunity to prosper within Ancient Greece. This information rings especially true when looking at certain iconic or famous philosophers of the time. However, interestingly enough, certain philosophical schools allowed for admission of women and enslaved people. One of the preeminent schools that allowed the “minorities” of Ancient Greek society to participate in philosophical culture is the Epicurean school.
Epicurus, or the founder of the Epicurean school of thought, was an essential philosopher during Leontion’s life. Unfortunately, although he was a proficient writer of his time, none of his works survive today. It is, in fact, Diogenes Laertius’s Lives of the Philosophers that allows us to get a better understanding of his work. Within the three letters synonymous with Epicurus’s identity and philosophical accomplishments recorded within the Lives of the Philosophers, there are some crucial ideas. For example, certain Epicurean beliefs believe in a combination of positive states of mind; ataraxia and aponia (freedom from fear and absence of physical pain). Epicurus notes that this state of complete happiness defines joy in its purest form.[14] Thus, this information and further analysis allow Epicurean philosophy to be viewed as a form of Hedonism, a philosophical sect related to the common theme of pleasure.
Epicurus pursued these values throughout his life as a philosopher, which allowed him to maintain such nonconformist ideas about allowing admission to women and enslaved people within his school of philosophy. These beliefs, which Epicureans held to a very high extent, allowed women and enslaved people, considered the very lowest of Ancient Greek society, a place and sense of belonging within a very competitive and fierce study of academia.
In her element, Leontion’s contribution in particular is considered to be an essential aspect of the philosophical school. As a woman and rumored courtesan within Ancient Greece involved with influential philosophers in her time, Leontion’s place within society is especially crucial to history’s understanding of gender equality throughout antiquity. Moreover, as a female philosopher, her place within the field was constantly criticized and debated, making historians and later scholars question her worth and involvement in Epicurean philosophy. This fact may be especially pertinent when examining a woman’s historical place in philosophy. However, these women’s hard work and pursuit of a truthful world make them courageous in history’s eyes. Thus, through the work and legacy of women philosophers like Leontion, it is possible to see great female representation in philosophy’s history.
One of Leontion’s longstanding achievements, or, rather, important pursuits of her legacy, was her commitment to the Epicurean school of thought. More famously, it was her curious nature that caused philosophers like Aelius Theon, Cicero, and Epicurus. Around her time, Leontion was speaking and writing against the famous philosopher Theophrastus, which Cicero noted, asking whether it was “dreams like these that not only encouraged Epicurus and Metrodorus, and Hermarchus to contradict Pythagoras, Plato, and Empedocles but emboldened a loose woman like Leontium to write a book refuting Theophrastus? Her style no doubt is the neatest of Attic, but all the same!—such as the license that prevailed in the Garden of Epicurus.”[15]
As noted by Cicero, it was unusual for female philosophers such as Leontion to speak against and raise criticism against renowned philosophers. In his letter, he praises her work and style but neglects to tell us the content of her further analysis. He further references the school of Epicurus to reference her philosophical education. This reflection of Leontion’s work and thinking demonstrates an intriguing perception of her for historians to investigate. Leontion can be seen as having spirit and determination by raising the concern of a philosopher who is more well-known to society than her. Nevertheless, this encounter shocked Cicero, an extremely well-educated philosopher of the late Roman Republic: Pamela Gordon notes in The Invention and Gendering of Epicurus that “when Cicero mentions a woman named Leontion as the author of an Epicurean philosophical text, he presents her as an aberration indicative of Epicurean licentiousness.” Thus, scholars can better understand what it means to be a woman in a male-dominated society and field through Leontion and others.
Nevertheless, Leontion’s legacy is inspiring. Despite the social distinction she possessed, she is regarded as a serious academic scholar. As for Aelius Theon, he proposes that “his students cite Leontion when they need an example of someone whose achievements are especially praiseworthy because of the social distance traversed.”[16] A series of revelations and thoughts follow from the new information we have acquired from learning about these female philosophers. From the work they have graciously given to the classical world, they have proven their successes and accomplishments quite clearly. Academia is led to believe that men took the lead in high powers of government, economics, philosophy, mathematics, and literature. However, certain women have overcome multiple barriers to pursue their interests within specific fields, defying expectations. Moreover, they believe that, despite their gender, they are equally capable of functioning as members of society and taking complete charge of their lives.
Alongside the other two visionaries mentioned above, Arete of Cyrene stands out. She is an early example of a woman in academia, having taught generations of Cyrenaic philosophers while writing more than forty books.[17] Her birthright, as the daughter of the founding member of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy, gave her an opportunity to speak out and to teach others Cyrenaic principles. Like many other women, Arete’s own work is lost, so history has to rely upon favorable (or, indeed, unfavorable) remarks left by her male counterparts. History mainly relies on the surviving accounts of men like Diogenes Laertius and Eusebius of Caesarea for scant knowledge of women like Arete. Though her reception relies mainly on the perception of male, medieval writers, her reception was mainly positive. In his work Mulierum Graecum, Johann Christoph Wolf discusses Arete’s merits; “… she is said to have publicly taught natural and moral philosophy in the schools and academies of Attica for thirty-five years, to have written forty books, and to have counted among her pupils one hundred and ten philosophers. She was so highly esteemed by her countrymen that they inscribed on her tomb an epitaph which declared that she was the splendor of Greece and possessed the beauty of Helen, the virtue of Thirma, the pen of Aristippus, the soul of Socrates and the tongue of Homer.”[18]
The personal life of Arete is equally as important as her successes and accomplishments. Born in a city in Northern Africa, in the modern-day nation of Libya, Arete was a child to Aristippus and an unknown mother. Aristippus, who was a well-known philosopher at the height of philosophy’s success in antiquity, was also the founder of the Cyrenaic school of thought. Cyrenaics are mainly known for their beliefs in skeptical epistemology and sensualist hedonism. These followers affirm that their affections or experiences are necessary components of knowledge. This helps distinguish between experiences people have and the objects that cause them to have such experiences. Within Cyrenaic philosophy, two arguments support their central belief that it is very difficult to measure the qualities of material objects in our experiences, the relativity of perception and the problem of other minds. The ethics of Cyrenaics also extend to a certain level of hedonism as well; a sensual hedonism that allows the highest pleasure to be one of one’s own making, and nothing is less valuable than one’s own physical happiness.
Such were the beliefs of Aristippus, who unconventionally educated both his son and daughter. This is specifically mentioned by Diogenes Laertius, who mentions that Aristippus gave “his daughter Arete the very best advice, training her up to despise excess.”[19] According to later work, it was clear that Aristippus expected Arete to be an active reader as well as just a writer. One of the works of Aristippus mentioned by Diogenes was a letter to his daughter. Though the original letter is lost, later writers, although taking certain creative liberties, wrote an imagined letter from the great philosopher to his daughter. There, Aristippus advises his daughter not only to continue leading a simple life free of excess, but to also convene with Socrates’ wives, Xanthippe and Myrto.[20] A theme of the importance of education for women and their responsibility in passing on knowledge to their children (as Aristippus had previously done) is weaved throughout the “letter”.
However, it was highly uncommon for men to educate their daughters – much more common was the education of their sons instead. When Aristippus was asked why it was more useful to invest in his sons’ education, he responded, “If nothing more than this, at all events, when in the theater he will not sit down like a stone upon stone.”[21] These two instances of educating children painted the scene of gender inequality in late antiquity.
Nevertheless, an educated and satisfied life was bestowed upon Arete, who chose to continue her father’s legacy as a Cyrenaic. Historians are led to this conclusion, as it was, in fact, Arete who eventually became the head of the Cyrenaic school after her father’s passing. As “the disciples of Aristippus were his daughter Arete (and others)”, the female philosopher succeeded her great father. Moreover, her son Aristippus “who went by the name of mother-taught”[22], succeeded her as well. Her son eventually inherits his grandfather’s preservation of hedonistic thought: “He quite plainly defined the end to be the life of pleasure, ranking as pleasure that which lies in motion. For he said that there are three states affecting our temperament: one, in which we feel pain, like a storm at sea; another, in which we feel pleasure, that may be likened to a gentle undulation, for pleasure is a gentle movement, comparable to a favorable breeze; and the third is an intermediate state, in which we feel neither pain nor pleasure, which is similar to a calm. So of these feelings only, he said, we have the sensation.”[23] Aristippus builds and expands on sects of hedonism. From this, he succeeds not only his mother and familial line, but also introduces a new perception of hedonism or simplicity. It benefited the succession of Aristippus’s legacy to educate his offspring, regardless of gender and social norms about girls’ education.
Cicero. On the Nature of the Gods. Academics. Translated by H. Rackham. Loeb Classical Library 268. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1933.
Daily Life of Women: An Encyclopedia from Ancient Times to the Present. United States, ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2021.
Deslauriers, Marguerite. “Women, Education, and Philosophy.” A Companion to Women in the Ancient World, edited by Sharon L. James and Sheila Dillon, John Wiley & Sons, 2012, pp. 343–53.
Diogenes Laertius. 195965. Lives of Eminent Philosophers. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Epicurus. Letter, “Letter to Menoeceus,” n.d. Accessed May 22, 2023. https://users.manchester.edu/Facstaff/SSNaragon/Online/texts/316/Epicurus,%20LetterMenoeceus.pdf.
Eusebius of Caesarea, Praeparatio Evangelica, xiv Archived January 20, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
Gordon, Pamela. The Invention and Gendering of Epicurus. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2012.
Greene, Ellen, and Marilyn B. Skinner, eds. 2009. The New Sappho on Old Age: Textual and Philosophical Issues. Hellenic Studies Series 38. Washington, DC: Center for Hellenic Studies. http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:hul.ebook:CHS_GreeneE_SkinnerM_eds.The_New_Sappho_on_Old_Age.2009.
Harry, Chelsea C. “Sappho of Lesbos Was a Lover of Wisdom, but What Kind?” Entry posted June 30, 2021. Accessed November 4, 2023. https://blog.apaonline.org/2021/06/30/sappho-of-lesbos-was-a-lover-of-wisdom-but-what-kind/.
Hubbard, T. K. “Popular Perceptions of Elite Homosexuality in Classical Athens.” Arion: A Journal of Humanities and the Classics 6, no. 1 (1998): 48-78. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20163707.
Laertius, Diogenes. “Life of Epicurus.” In The Lives of the Philosophers, 1-34. N.p., 1895.
Malherbe, Abraham J. The Cynic Epistles. Missoula (MT): Scholars Press, 1977.
McClure, Laura. “The Witticisms of Courtesans and Attic Paideia.” In Courtesans at Table: Gender and Greek Literary Culture in Athenaeus, 79-105. London: Routledge, 2003.
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Chelsea C. Harry, “Sappho of Lesbos Was a Lover of Wisdom, but What Kind?,” entry posted June 30, 2021, accessed November 4, 2023, https://blog.apaonline.org/2021/06/30/sappho-of-lesbos-was-a-lover-of-wisdom-but-what-kind/. ↑
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Waithe, M.E. (1987). Arete, Asclepigenia, Axiothea, Cleobulina, Hipparchia, and Lasthenia. In: Waithe, M.E. (eds) A History of Women Philosophers. A History of Women Philosophers, vol 1 ↑
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