Ostensibly, Virgil’s Aeneid is an epic effusive in its praise and admiration for Emperor Augustus and it has been regarded thus by most readers since. Virgil primarily achieves this through the parallels drawn between Augustus and the protagonist hero Aeneas. These are shown most explicitly with Jupiter’s Prophecy in Book I which predicted that Julius Caesar and subsequently Augustus Caesar would usher in an age of peace for the Roman people; and also in Book VIII with the depictions of Octavian’s victory over Marc Antony and Cleopatra on the face of the Shield of Aeneas. This was a necessary measure for Virgil to take, as he was working under the patronage of Maecenas who was a close friend of Augustus. However, below the surface it is apparent that Virgil managed to find a balance of portraying his loyalty to the emperor while making suggestions at his own personal views. The Aeneid is packed with themes of war, youth and loss which could serve as a reflection of the consequences of Augustus’ actions: epitomised by the epic’s conclusion when it is so shockingly easy for pious Aeneas to be overcome by furor.
There were many examples of Augustinian propaganda in the Aeneid which earn Aeneas the introduction from Virgil of a man “famous for his devotion”. To appreciate the importance of linking Aeneas with Augustus, it is crucial to understand the importance of lineage in Roman culture. This concept is emphasised at the start of the epic in Book I by Virgil within the epic itself when he stresses the titular hero’s divine lineage having encountered his mother Venus soon after landing at Carthage. This encourages the reader to apply the same importance of Aeneas’ lineage in the epic to the lineage from Aeneas to Augustus. Hence, Virgil writes Jupiter’s prophecy which contains the line “From this noble stock will be born a Trojan Caesar”. In this way, Julius Caesar’s (who himself was deified post-mortem) divinity is confirmed; as he is Augustus’ adoptive father, this illustrates to the reader that they ought to make comparisons between Augustus and Aeneas as the events of the epic unfold and are revealed. Moreover, this is continued in Book VIII where a shield is newly made for Aeneas, a shield rife with Augustan imagery, “On one side was Augustus Caesar…from his radiant forehead there steamed a double flame and his father’s star shone above his head”. This introduces a new theme, developing upon the aforementioned lineage: Virgil professing the greatness of Augustus himself, rather than merely his greatness due to his descendants.
With these links established, Virgil conveys the previously-attested-to piety of Aeneas which is vividly portrayed in Book II at The Fall of Troy. He rejects Hector’s attractive offer, “You must escape, son of the goddess. You must save yourself … you have given enough”, instead choosing to stay and defend his city until its very last breath. Eventually, Aeneas unwillingly flees to fulfil his fate, at which point Virgil divulges his inner thoughts, “so anxious I was, so afraid for both the man I carried and for the child at my side”. This nobility amid such destruction and misery separates him from most others and mirrors the image Augustus was attempting to project of himself and his nation. As observed in his commissioned Ara Pacis Augustae in which he promotes Roman familial ideals and piety, just as the Aeneid does.
Virgil shows Aeneas taking particular care of his men which displays another element of Augustan piety, reinforcing the links between Aeneas’ piety and Augustan values. In Book I, Virgil writes, “he succeeded in stretching seven huge carcasses on the ground, one for each of the seven ships…then gave them out to all his men”. Here, his first instinct is to provide for his men, who have just survived a turbulent sea journey, before doing anything else. Virgil effectively paints the picture of a pious man which is evidently intended to be propagandistic given the many links and comparisons made between Aeneas and Augustus. This is the most widely held view of the Aeneid, along with the idea that its purposes are to show Roman greatness and to consolidate its firm foundation; and more importantly to solidify the Empire that Augustus has just created by creating a divine lineage (other than deifying his father Julius Caesar) thus confirming his right to absolute power after a tumultuous few year of Civil War.
However, Virgil is not always positive about the first Emperor of Rome and readily criticises him with subtlety and conviction where he sees fit. A key theme of the epic is the wastefulness of war, often exemplified by the lost lives of youths. This is seen in Book IX when Virgil places much pathos on the death of the relatively minor, but young, characters Nisus and Euryalus; then again in Book XI with the death of Pallas. In an emotive scene depicting Euryalus’ death, Virgil uses colourful imagery to contrast his innocence – with his “white breast” and “beautiful body” – which contrasts with the vivid depiction of his death, “scarlet flower languishing, as if it had been cut by a plough”. These untimely and unnatural deaths mirror the destruction brought upon the youth by war, perhaps a warning directed at Augustus over his ruthless imperialism. It could also be interpreted as a criticism of bloodshed already committed by Augustus in order to secure power.
Nonetheless, it is important to be wary of anachronizing our peaceful ideals and applying them to the Romans, who were far more assured of the necessity of war than we are. Augustus and the Empire’s knowledge of the importance of war is evidenced by the Statue of Augustus of Prima Porta. There he is depicted as wearing a cuirass which has some fascinating features: particularly striking is the image of the retrieval of the Aquilla, allegedly, by Tiberius (Augustus’ son). In his lifetime, Augustus successfully utilised this bold retrieval of the Roman Standard as a measure to restore militaristic pride among the Roman people. This statue is significant as it appears to have been built at a similar time to the Aeneid’s publication, while portraying similar themes to it, as well. Through the statue’s description of Augustus as a belligerent military leader, it could be suggested that Virgil’s depictions of war and desolation still align with Augustan values, in adherence of Rome’s military tradition.
The most damning criticism of Augustus come through the displays of impiety by the ever-associated Aeneas. His most despicable actions take place after the death of Pallas (Book X), wherein Aeneas’ disgraceful descent into furor, for the pursuit of revenge, comes more easily to him than it had to any other character in the epic. He is described as “burning with rage looking for Turnus” [the murderous Rutulian]. This fire imagery is reminiscent of Homeric heroes from whom Augustus was so keen to separate himself and his Empire, this link would have certainly been picked up by the contemporary educated classes. This drives Aeneas to commit a shocking human sacrifice, “four warrior sons of Sulmo he now captured alive and four reared by Ulfens, to sacrifice them”. While it could be interpreted as evidence of the dangers of furor that Aeneas has so adeptly avoided for most of the epic, the obvious links made to Augustus mean that his fiery furor and the devastation that it caused could serve as a reminder of the bloodshed of the civil wars in which Augustus took power.
Virgil avoids ending his epic, the magnum opus of Latin literature, with a positive but instead ends it on a rather sour note. It could have been victorious and jubilant: the win over the Rutilians being a cause for celebration and serving as a prelude to all the great Roman military battles to come. However, it ends with Aeneas’ immensely improper impiety as he murders a suppliant. The sought after Turnus says to Aeneas while on his knees, “you have seen me defeated and stretching out my hands to you”, before Aeneas proceeds to kill him. This shows a complete lack of clemency and an absolute disregard for the sanctity of supplication which subverts the idea of Aeneas’ piety that is so often attributed to him. Clemency was an ideal Augustus was fervent in his support for, hence this could be perceived as an intentional slight on Augustus, by demonstrating just how easily Aeneas is corrupted by furor and vulnerable to his own anger. Furthermore, this creates a cyclical structure to the epic which started with a description of Pyrrhus whom Priam lambasts for his lack of respect for suppliants. Aeneas’ actions could be justified as it was necessary for Turnus to die for the Trojan people to settle in Italy, however, this too could be interpreted as representing the injustice upon which the Empire was built.Linking Aeneas to Pyrrhus, therefore, associates Augustus with murder, far from the pious man he wishes to project. It is hugely significant that Virgil ends his epic this way as the lasting impression of the readers would be the violence, death and impiety from the hero, who is so closely linked to their Emperor.
In summary, Virgil’s Aeneid is multi-faceted: neither total praise nor critical of Augustus Caesar. The epic is thoughtful and nuanced, a kind outer layer promoting lineage and the princeps’ piety, with a recurring cautionary undertone. It is critical that Virgil ends the epic on a tone of distrust for the leader, which could be interpreted as ensuring that people are wary of how this regime has come to be, that they might be cautious of where it may go.