The epigram started out as an inscription (ἐπιγραμμα), first appearing in elegiac metre in the 7th century BC.[1] Originally featuring on tombs and statues, it then expanded to become sympotic and humorous. By the 4th century, it had developed into a literary genre, with two ‘schools’ of epigrammatists forming.[2] The brevity which was primarily employed to facilitate inscription was then incorporated into epigram’s nature, particularly advocated for by Callimachus and later Parmenion.[3] From there, it was adopted into Latin literary tradition, gaining satire, obscenity and more pointed invective. Martial took it upon himself to capitalise on this genre, solely writing within it. From its birth as a genre up to this point, to what extent can epigram be justified as a legitimate one? Legitimate for these purposes pertains to being socially acceptable, unique, well-founded, respectable and useful.
Simonides is the earliest known author of literary epigram, composing mainly epitaphs (inscriptional epigrams written on tombs). His most famous work is “ Ὠ ξειν’, ἀγγειλον Λακεδαιμονοις ὁτι τῃδε / κειμεθα τοις κεινων ῥημασι πειθομενοι”[4] (O passer-by, tell the Spartans that we lie here obeying their orders). Many scholars praise this 11-word poem, including Mackail: “there is complete ease of workmanship and mastery of form … with … noble and severe simplicity”[5] and Jay: “no explanation … can recreate this inaccessible art”[6]. There is great skill in creating such short yet utterly effective verse, with no word superfluous. Epigram is a unique vehicle for showcasing a poet’s τεχνη in the area of brevity and concision, something which Callimachus later highlights. It is of note that an epitaph in verse would have made it easier to commit to memory. This means that they would have been of more worth to loved ones of the dead, who could then remember them as they went about their day-to-day lives. Also, the beauty displayed in the art of the poetry could be appreciated as a reflection and celebration of the beauty of the person’s life. Thus, epigram in the form of epitaphs was useful for dealing with grief, which granted it more legitimacy.
In the Hellenistic period, the poet Callimachus wrote his Aetia. In the Prologue, he described how Apollo instructs him to make “την Μουσαν … λεπταλεην”[7] (his Muse slender). This refers to prizing concision in his poetry. In conjunction with this, he also wrote that “μικρη τις … καλα πρησσοντι ποιητῃ / ῥητισ”[8] (a short speech befits a good poet), calling it “βραχυσυλλαβιη”[9] (brevity). He wished that “τεχνῃ κρινετε”[10] ([we] judge his poetry by its skill). Furthermore, Callimachus wanted to “τα μη πατεουσιν ἁμαξαι / τα στειβειν”[11] (go where wagons do not trundle), i.e. write in a way that is not commonly practised. This meant not composing in certain genres, such as epic. These two principles, for some of his works, pointed to epigram. One example of his poetic τεχνη is in Epigram 47, with his use of “ἁλα”[12], ambiguous on its own as to whether it means salt or sea. “την ἁλιην”[13] (of the sea / salt-cellar) in the same line, coupled with “ἐφ’ἡσ”[14] (aboard which) leads us to expect a word for ship, and thus take “ἁλα” as sea. He ran with this pun, writing about the “χειμωνας μεγαλους … δανεων”[15] (huge storms – of debt), and ending with Eudemus “σωθεις ἐξ ἁλος”[16] (saved from the sea / through salt).[17] The wit of this wordplay is not only using epigram to display the poet’s sharp mind, but it also requires the reader to be of sharp mind, to understand the joke being made. Thus, this made it a more legitimate genre, as it is engaging for the reader, and was a space to be intellectually challenged.
The employment of the epigram for thought-provoking and entertaining wordplay fed comfortably into the symposium. Symposia were wine-parties, and provided a context in which people could interact, for example in philosophical discussion as in Plato. The overriding feature was that of competition, one form of which was testing each other with riddles. If someone failed to solve them, they would have to do a forfeit, such as drinking their cups down without taking a breath.[18] The epigram was a desirable format for these riddles, as they were in verse, meaning an easier memorisation and subsequent recitation, and also were short, so allowed for many to fit into one party. The Greek Anthology contains many of these riddles and puzzles, all epigrams designed to be pondered on and worked out, providing a source of amusement but also κλεος from everyone to those who succeeded.[19] Κλεος was a Homeric and therefore well-respected ideal, and thus, I offer, in the sympotic context, the epigram’s capacity to grant κλεος meant that people respected it more. To give an example of one of these riddles, every line of epigram 105 of book 14 described a word, whilst signalling the removal of one letter each time. The solution is as follows: πους, οὑς, ὑς, σ,[20] which makes for a very clever wordplay.
Reflecting again on Callimachus, his desire to stray from the common, normal practice was not wholly original. The Iambic tradition, which was present within Greece, was said to have originated from the words and actions of Iambe. In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, Demeter is in a deep grief about losing her daughter and has given up her divine duties. She won’t accept food or even speak, disrespecting the guest-host relationship that she is partaking in. Iambe then “χλευῃς”[21] (jested with her) and “πολλα παρασκωπτουσ’ ”[22] (mocked many with a joke), which results in Demeter being brought out of her grief. Spisak notes that “Iambe’s taunts, an inversion of normal behaviour, are in reaction to Demeter’s inverted behaviour … [in order to] bring her back to her social self and eventually her communal function”[23]. This use of unconventional jokes can be seen in Callimachus’ Iambics 5, where he is scorning a schoolmaster for his perverse sexual relations with his students.[24] He warns him to hold back, lest he “κυμβαχος κυβιστησῃς” (tumbles headlong). My main focus here is that there is a strong Homeric allusion, with “κυμβαχος” being a very uncommon word, first written in the Iliad 5.586. Homeric texts were taught in schoolrooms, and thus this is an ironic word to use.[25] It could even be seen as a taunt, likening it to Iambe’s abnormal taunts, while both the teacher and Demeter required proper reinstatement into their role.
The Iambic tradition focused on invective, something which became adopted into epigram, much more so in the later Latin tradition than in the Greek. Invective is the use of scornful, abusive language, which Spisak maintains achieved the purpose of “redress[ing] a social infraction … and maintain[ing] a healthy and productive state”.[26] In other words, the mocking and therefore calling out of certain antisocial behaviour meant that people were reminded of what acting in a social manner looked like. This is rooted in the older Indo-European practice of praise/blame poetry.[27] Figures known as ‘poet-singers’ would publicly shame people, achieving respect and social control. Plato’s Minos acknowledges this, when the Socrates says “οἱ γαρ ποιηται μεγα δυνανται εἰς δοξαν”[28] (for the poets have great power over one’s public perception). Thus, epigram’s strong links to both the Iambic and praise/blame tradition makes it better-founded and legitimate.
In particular, Martial’s epigrams feature much invective, while also being didactic, demonstrating the effects of abnormal behaviour. For example, in book 12.28 he wrote about “Hermogenes … fur”[29] (the thief), describing how “festinant trepidi substringere carbasa nautae”[30] (the sailors, in trembling haste, proceed to furl their sails) when he comes, and “linigeri fugiunt calvi sistrataque turba”[31] (the bareheaded priests of Isis, clad in linen, and the choristers who play the sistrum, betake themselves to flight). Martial conveyed two things here: behaviour which is antisocial disrupts the normal functioning of society (here work and worship), and also leads to the perpetrator being ostracised once their transgression is known. This made invective both a reminder of a good functioning state and a deterrent from acting out of line.
Another major feature of Martial’s epigrams is the abundance of obscenity, with degrading and sexually explicit vocabulary. He used such a low register that some of his poems were refused translation into English, or not printed due to being “too disgusting to repeat”[32]. For some critics, this seriously undermines the status of his poetry, with contemporaries of Martial complaining about it[33]. The introduction of unsophisticated obscenity into Latin epigram could be seen as something which detracts from its legitimacy. Furthermore, the culture which he lived in was not widely accepting of obscenity. It had a strong notion of dignitas, and the emperor Domitian exercised his censorship[34]. Martial was aware of this, exclaiming “ecce rubet quidam, pallet, stupet, oscitat, odit”[35] (behold, someone grows red and pale by turns, looks shocked, gasps, hates). However, there is also much supporting Martial’s utilisation. Returning to the Iambic Tradition previously mentioned, in regard to Iambe’s taunts, “comments made on the passage by ancient authors indicate that her jokes were the … prototype of ritual abuse (αἰσχρολογια) that was part of the Eleusinian ritual … by all indications … obscene”[36]. Additionally, in the Orphic version, Iambe has a counterpart called Baubo who attempts to take Demeter out of her grief by making herself indecent.[37] Thus not only Martial’s invective, but also his obscenity, has an identifiable tie to Iambic tradition.
In terms of employing vulgarity, “most [of it] … comes in the context of his invective”[38], “directed against those who indulge in sexual practices which diverge from the accepted norm”.[39] For example, he scolded Gallus, saying “subdola famosae moneo fuge retia moechae”[40] (I’m warning you to flee the sly nets of the infamous seductress). Describing the punishments of succumbing to temptation, the vulgar words “natibus … pedico … irrumat … futuit”[41] feature. While there is someone named, one should be careful not to take this as a personal attack on someone’s vulnerability. Martial clearly stated that “modum … / parcere personis, dicere de vitiis”[42] (his rule [is] to spare people, but speak the vice), using invective in the appropriate manner. Thus, it served as a reinforcement of adultery’s wrongness, both through the explicit warning but also the reminder that society had a system in place as to what happens to adulterers[43]. By “treat[ing] behaviour dangerous to the social community … [it] reconnect[s] the reader … with the basic human … instincts”[44], here being that adultery is immoral. Therefore, the content, although obscene, promoted socially acceptable and legitimate beliefs. Martial also described how “hominem pagina nostra sapit … tuos cognoscere mores … te scire”[45] (our page smacks of humanity, [allowing you] to know human character [and] yourself). This is remarkably similar to the Greek γνωμη ‘γνωθι σεαυτον’. Thus, as well as teaching his audience, he further rooted his poetry in Greek tradition.
Another justification of Martial’s obscenity is its connection to religious rituals. Looking back to the story of Iambe and Demeter, the obscene jokes became a big part of Demeter’s cult. Following closely on from this, when Martial defends his obscenity, he remarked “quis Floralia vestit … ?”[46] (does anyone clothe Flora’s festivities?). He also referenced Flora in the praefatio of his first book: “epigrammata illis scribuntur qui solent spectare Florales”[47] (epigrams are written for those who are accustomed to watch Flora’s festivities). Flora was an old, Italian vegetation goddess, comparable to Demeter, and her “annual spring festival”[48] involved “typically licentious games”[49]. Romans held their gods in high esteem, demonstrated through, for example, their desire to prove themselves descended from one. Any practices at their festivals would have been believed to be pleasing and respectful to the god in question, making them sacred and irremovable. Therefore, by referring to Flora, Martial is reminding his readership of the part of their culture which is very much accepting of, even encouraging, uncensored obscenities. Indeed, this is not the only time when Martial justified by mentioning rites. In epigram 1.35, he rhetorically asked “quis si me iubeas thalassionem / verbis dicere non thalassionis?”[50] (Would you order me to sing a wedding song without using wedding song words?). Thalassio was an ancient marriage invocation, part of a wider solemn practice. It would have been well-known and valued, and it contained much obscenity and sexual content. The purpose behind thalassio was to bring on the conception of children. Thus, the primary idea of the obscenity, both in the marriage rite and also Flora’s festival (since honouring her won her agricultural favour), was to promote fertility.
Looking again at epigram 1.35, Martial joined his obscenity strongly to fertility. It is clear that the Romans valued fertility in all senses, as the examples mentioned above (and many others) were practiced. Martial complained that censoring his works would be the equivalent of a “Gallo … Priapo”[51] (a neutered Priapus). Priapus, here embodying Martial’s jests, was a divinity of Greek roots. His phallus was believed to have apotropaic power[52], protecting crops and other productive land. Additionally, due to his portrayal in ancient Roman poetry[53], he was seen as having so great a libido that it overflowed, manifesting in fertility of the ground around. Without his phallus, it would be impossible for both these roles to be performed. So too, Martial argued, is the role of his poetry as “carminibus … iocosis”[54] (funny poems) unable to be performed “nisi pruriant”[55] (unless it sexually itches). The underlying takeaway is that his poetry also may encourage desired fertility.
Indeed, a different form of fertility that Martial’s obscenity sought to induce was that of character. When describing his less rude books, he referenced how “Catonis uxor / et quas horribles legant Sabinae”[56] (Cato’s wife and fearsome Sabine women could read them). The Sabine women “were often used exemplars of a strict morality in literature”[57], as was Cato’s wife. In the praefatio of Martial’s first book, he exclaimed “nosses … / festoque lusus et licentiam volgi, / … cur in theatrum, Cato severe, venisti?”[58] (since you knew the festive jokes and license of the crowd, why did you enter the theatre, stern Cato?). This is a reference to when Cato entered the theatre during the Floralia, and then left. This was supposedly because “he perceived that his presence was inhibiting the actors from using obscenities”[59] (since he was openly averse to it), but Martial’s pointed question implies that Cato acted deliberately, as a public display of his high morality. Henceforth, he was used as an epitome of too-severe morality. Martial addressed this state multiple times; for example, he described someone who was unable to bring themselves to read his poetry as “ambitiose tristis”[60] (ostentatiously stern). This key term recurs, conversely describing “nec tristia carmina”[61] (his poems [that are] not stern). Following the same theme, he also employed gravis, for example, poem 11.16 instructs a reader “qui gravis es nimium”[62] (who is exceedingly staid) to put down his book. The third term he used is severus, as seen in “scribant ista graves nimium nimiumque severi” (Let such things [epic and tragedy] be written by those who are exceedingly grave and singularly severe). Thus, he clearly portrayed excessive morality as being in conflict with the content of epigram. Therefore, through the obscenity’s shocking nature to this group of people, Martial hoped to achieve a corrective balance, preventing “the social community … stagnat[ing] in its moral severity”[63]. It was an attempt to re-kindle the fertility of character which is appreciative, not overly restrictive, of its basic human feelings and sexual drives.
The final justification for the obscenity which I would like to discuss is simply that Martial’s audience had a taste for the explicit, and therefore he was catering to their preferences. He explains that “hi libelli … non possunt sine mentula placere”[64] (these little books, without some obscenity present, are not able to please [the readership]). With regards to Martial’s audience, bearing in mind the well-practised ideal of dignitas, one might be tempted to think that the lower, less sophisticated classes made up the majority. However, one must also remember that an education in literacy was not as common as it is today, especially not among the lower classes. This is argued for in “Harris’ thesis of widespread illiteracy”[65], therefore meaning that Martial was mainly writing for the equestrian and senatorial classes: the reading public. Furthermore, books were relatively expensive, which would have excluded others still.
Although it was possible for works to be experienced through recitations, there is much evidence that Martial’s primary audience were readers. He wrote epigrams to them[66], and didn’t ever mention those who might hear his work. One can safely presume that this was the medium by which Martial expected his consumers to receive his work – he describes “laudat, amat … nostros mea Roma libellos / … me manus omnis habet”[67] (my Rome praises [and] loves my little books – every hand holds me). This is a very vivid picture of his poetry being owned and enjoyed in a physical copy; there is no reasonable interpretation that suggests otherwise. I would argue that his poetry was widely read particularly because it was unique from other literature also at hand. Therefore, because it was something different, it was valued, granting epigram more legitimacy. Furthermore, I propose that those with respectable positions in society enjoying Martial so much assisted in epigram’s growth in acceptance. Lastly, he declares “sic scribit Catullus, sic / Marsus, sic Pedo, sic Gaetulicus”[68] (thus [with obscenity] writes Catullus, Marsus, Pedo and Gaetulicus), pointing to them as the pretext of his vulgarity. This is significant twofold; it demonstrated his informed textual awareness, while also appealing to that of his educated readers, who relied on and respected literary tradition.
On the whole, with regards to Martial’s obscenity, it seems to me that once one looks past the surface potential repulsiveness and unsophistication, his frequent use of it in his epigrams was very well-founded and justified. This lent itself well to strengthening the epigram as a genre.
Of course, simply the fact that Martial’s epigrams contain obscenity, as well as being short in length, sets them apart from ‘higher genres’ of literature, such as epic. Since epic was already so highly esteemed, having such radical differences could have a negative effect on epigram’s image and credibility. In contrast to trying to soften this disparity, Martial surprisingly wrote explicitly against epic, and also tragedy, condemning them as “praelegat ut tumidus rauca te voce magister / oderit et … virgo … puer”[69] ([texts which] a pompous pedant may read out to his class, and the maiden and youth may detest). The satirical, mocking language of “tumidus” (pompous) and “rauca” (hoarse) serves to create a more colourful picture of his negative opinion on ‘higher genres’. In epigram 4.49, he went into more detail about why he feels this way: “nescit … quid sint epigrammata … / qui tantum lusus ista iocosque vocat. / ille magis ludit, qui scribit … pascentem Siculas aut Polyphemon ovis”[70] (to call epigrams only trifles and frivolities is not to know what they are – the poet is more trifling who writes of Polyphemus pasturing his Sicilian sheep). His argument here is that, although epigram was seen to not be as serious or heavy as epic, it is, in his view, very much the contrary. Poem 10.4 makes it clear: “possit dicere vita ‘meum est’ ”[71] (life can say ‘it’s mine’ [his poems]). He claimed that his poetry was more useful and important since it discussed meaningful and applicable aspects of real life, whereas other genres avoided this to tell tales.
From a historical point of view, the everyday characteristic of Martial’s epigrams makes them extremely helpful for studying society at the time. Poem 8.14 reads “mihi cella datur, non tota clusa fenestra, / in qua nec Boreas ipse manere velit”[72] (I live in a little cell, with a window that won’t even close, in which Boreas himself would not want to stay). The humour of this statement to enhance just how cold it was, together with the satirical description of the room as a “cella” gives an excellent description of his living conditions. Elsewhere, he affirmed that “semper pauper eris … Aemiliane. / dantur opes nullis nunc nisi divitibus” (you will always be poor, Aemiliane – riches are now given to none but the rich). This is an upsetting description of the wealth inequality that existed (not at all helped by the emphasis on class). While epic has the ability to reflect cultural ideals, for example pietas in the Aeneid, it is not able to present real life with the same starkness that epigram does, which bolsters epigram’s legitimacy and necessity as a genre. Furthermore, I would argue that turning the non-poetic day-to-day events into poetry was an impressive demonstration of Martial’s τεχνη, thus being acceptable by pre-established Callimachean standards.
Since the epigram had now become an occasional poem, it included a wide variety of content. Due to this, defining it as a genre becomes less about specific topics and more about specific form. On the whole, Martial was good at keeping it brief, but not as much when it came to metre. Elegiac couplet was firmly the established metre of epigram, and thus when he wrote in other metres, I would argue that that is a dangerous thing to do. While understanding that variatio of metre is a testament to a poet’s versatility, if the poem is satirical in nature, and is chosen to be a hexameter[73], it begins to look very similar to, for example, Juvenal’s satire (a genre intended to be separate), encroaching on its distinct definition. Furthermore, when Martial was challenged about this, the response that he offers is not very persuasive to me. He simply says “transire tibi”[74] ([you can have the ability] to not read them). He essentially didn’t wish to admit that writing an epigram in hexameter is counter to its nature, instead telling Tucca to depart if he doesn’t agree.
Overall, I can definitely appreciate epigram’s place in literature up to Martial’s time, including its initially unattractive obscenities. However, I don’t agree with his complete rejection of epic and tragedy in its favour. As they were fulfilling deliberately different roles, it was very important to have them both – the everyday, humorous didacticism which kept the audience grounded, and the foreign, fantastical tales, which provide an enthralling escape from real life. As time went on, epigram’s definition of form and function became more recognised, and so I would argue that it was justifiable as legitimate so long as it remained within these capacities. Whenever it didn’t, for example if the invective became personal, it risked trying to be something it wasn’t permitted to.
Acosta-Hughes, B. and Stephens, S. A. 2012. Callimachus in Context : From Plato to the Augustan Poets. Cambridge
Cameron, A. 1995. Callimachus and His Critics. Princeton.
Ferguson, J. 1970. The Epigrams of Callimachus. http://www.jstor.org/stable/642329 (taken from Greece & Rome, 17(1), 64-80. )
Forster, E. S. 1945. Riddles and Problems from the Greek Anthology. http://www.jstor.org/stable/641079 (taken from Greece & Rome, 14(41/42), 42–47. )
Howell, P. 1980. A Commentary on Book One of the Epigrams of Martial. London.
Jay, P. 1981. The Greek Anthology. Middlesex.
Mackail, J. W. 1906. Select Epigrams from the Greek Anthology. London.
Select poems from Callimachus’ Epigrams (translated into English), provided on www.attalus.org/poetry/callimachus2.html
Mendell, C. W. 1922. Martial and the Satiric Epigram. http://www.jstor.org/stable/262627 (taken from Classical Philology, 17(1), 1–20. )
Select poems from Martial’s Epigrams
Select poems from Martial’s Epigrams (translated into English), provided on https://topostext.org/work/677
Spisak, A. L. 2007. Martial : A Social Guide. London.
Watson, L. and Watson, P. 2003. Martial : Select Epigrams. Cambridge.
Watson, P. 2002. The Originality of Martial’s Language. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40267146 (taken from Glotta, 78(1/4), 222–257. )
Howell, P. 1980. A Commentary on Book One of the Epigrams of Martial. Page 7 ↑
Jay, P. 1981. The Greek Anthology. Pages 12-3 ↑
See Greek Anthology, Book 9.342 ↑
Greek Anthology, Book 3.4 ↑
Mackail, J. W. 1906. Select Epigrams from the Greek Anthology. Page 308 ↑
Jay, P. 1981. The Greek Anthology. Page 12 ↑
Callimachus, Aetia, Prologue, line 24 ↑
Callimachus, Epigrams, Poem 8, line 1-2 ↑
Ibid but line 6 ↑
Callimachus, Aetia, Prologue, lines 17-8 ↑
Ibid but lines 25-6 ↑
Callimachus, Epigrams, Poem 47, line 1 ↑
Ibid ↑
Ibid ↑
Ibid but line 2 ↑
Ibid but line 4 ↑
Laid out in : Ferguson, J. 1970. The Epigrams of Callimachus. Page 8 http://www.jstor.org/stable/642329 ↑
Cameron, A. 1995. Callimachus and His Critics. Page 80 ↑
Ibid ↑
Forster, E. S. 1945. Riddles and Problems from the Greek Anthology. Page 4 http://www.jstor.org/stable/641079 ↑
Homer, Hymn to Demeter, line 202 ↑
Ibid but line 203 ↑
Spisak, A. L. 2007. Martial : A Social Guide. Pages 17-8 ↑
Acosta-Hughes, B. and Stephens, S. A. 2012. Callimachus in Context : From Plato to the Augustan Poets. Page 65 ↑
Ibid but page 67 ↑
Spisak, A. L. 2007. Martial : A Social Guide. Page 17 & page 20 ↑
Ibid but page 5 ↑
Plato, Minos, section 320e, lines 3-4 ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 12.28, line 1
(n.b. most translations of Martial poems that I have used are taken from https://topostext.org/work/677) ↑
Ibid but line 17-8 ↑
Ibid but line 19 ↑
For example, https://topostext.org/work/677 reports that Bohn doesn’t translate epigram 11.22, and the site refuses to include Ker’s translation ↑
For example, Martial, Epigrams, Book 1.35, lines 1-2 ↑
Watson, P. 2002. The Originality of Martial’s Language. Page 3 http://www.jstor.org/stable/40267146 (taken from 1 pref. 9-20, Sullivan (1991) 64-72) ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 6.60, line 3 ↑
Spisak, A. L. 2007. Martial : A Social Guide. Page 16 ↑
Clement, Protreptikos, 2.20.1 = Orph. Fr. 52 (Kern) ↑
Spisak, A. L. 2007. Martial : A Social Guide. Page 25 ↑
Watson, L. and Watson, P. 2003. Martial : Select Epigrams. Page 22 ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 2.47, line 1 ↑
Ibid but lines 3-4 ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 10.33, lines 9-10 ↑
Namely that the husband takes revenge on the man who slept with his wife ↑
Spisak, A. L. 2007. Martial : A Social Guide. Page 20 ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 10.4, lines 10-12 ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 1.35, line 8 ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 1, praefatio, lines 15-6 (as displayed on Perseus) ↑
Spisak, A. L. 2007. Martial : A Social Guide. Page 27 ↑
Ibid but page 26 ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 1.35, lines 6-7 ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 1.35, line 15 ↑
That is, the ability to ward off evil ↑
Spisak, A. L. 2007. Martial : A Social Guide. Page 32 attests to this ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 1.35, line 10 ↑
Ibid but line 11 ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 11.15, lines 1-2 ↑
Spisak, A. L. 2007. Martial : A Social Guide. Page 29 ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 1, Praefatio, lines 19-21 (as displayed on Perseus) ↑
Spisak, A. L. 2007. Martial : A Social Guide. Page 27 ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 1, Praefatio, line 13 (as displayed on Perseus) ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 10.18, line 3 ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 11.16, line 1 ↑
Spisak, A. L. 2007. Martial : A Social Guide. Page 30 ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 1.35, line 3 & line 5 ↑
Watson, L. and Watson, P. 2003. Martial : Select Epigrams. Page 8, Page 3 alluding to: Harris, W. V. 1989. Ancient Literacy. Cambridge, pages 225-7 ↑
For example Martial, Epigrams, Book 11.2 and 11.16 ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 6.60, lines 1-2 ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 1, Praefatio, lines 11-2 (as displayed on Perseus) ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 8.3, lines 15-6 ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 4.49, lines 1-3 & line 6 ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 10.4, line 8 ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 8.14, lines 5-6 ↑
For example Martial, Epigrams, Book 6.64 ↑
Martial, Epigrams, Book 6.65, line 6 ↑